Title IX, Hazing and Steroids

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What: The Basics

WHAT IS HAZING?

Hazing is a process, based on a tradition that is used by groups to discipline and to maintain a hierarchy (i.e., a pecking order). Regardless of consent, the rituals require individuals to engage in activities that are physically and psychologically stressful.

These activities can be humiliating, demeaning, intimidating, and exhausting, all of which results in physical and/or emotional discomfort. Hazing is about group dynamics and proving one's worthiness to become a member of the specific group.

WHAT IS HAZARDOUS HAZING?

Hazardous hazing occurs when the traditions or initiation rites skid out of control and cause significant and lasting physical and/or psychological damage. When hazardous hazing occurs everyone in the group, including the perpetrators, (those who planned and carried out the actions) bystanders (those who watched and did not actively participate) and victims, (those who were receiving the hazing) may be psychologically traumatized.

The families of those involved, coaches and other supervisors may also be traumatized; even if they were not present during the hazardous hazing.

Their trauma may be evident immediately, it may be delayed for months or years or even decades.

WHAT IS BULLYING?

Bullying is an intentional act of aggression that is meant to harm a victim either physically or psychologically. Bullies usually operate alone or in small groups and choose to victimize individuals who they perceive as vulnerable. Victims attract bullies by their small stature, their younger age, or lower social status. Frequently there is only one specific victim who is often a scapegoat.

There are no traditions involved, nor are there authority figures or leaders.

The intent of the bully is to satisfy his own personal needs, such as obtaining money, lunch, homework or simply intimidating someone. Bullying has been observed in preschool children whereas hazing does not begin until middle or high school.

WHAT IS THE BLUEPRINT OF HAZING?

The blueprint of hazing states that the newcomer, or victim, is hazed. Once accepted by the group, the victim becomes a bystander, and watches as others get hazed. Eventually, the bystander achieves senior status and power, and becomes a perpetrator.

They do onto others what was done to them, and they feel as though they have the right and duty to pass on the tradition. High school students pack up this blueprint and stuff it into their backpack, in order to take their hazing experience with them to college, the military and the workplace. Each hazing brings with it the possibility of a new twist. Perpetrators want to leave their mark on the tradition, and therefore they may add or change the tradition, slightly.

Who: The Characters

Perpetrators: The people who have power and control and use it to cause discomfort, physically or psychologically. They are directly involved and are held responsible for the consequences of a hazing.

Bystanders: Those who are observing but not actively participating in the actions taken by the perpetrators. Bystanders, as a group, have the power to increase or decrease the degree of aggression perpetrated against victims. Bystanders are effected by and responsible for hazings.

Victims: Those with least status who are receiving the hazing, or who are the targets as defined by the particular traditions.

Supervisors: Those who are supposed to be supervising the activities of the group. These people have been given responsibility by an authority to be "in charge."

Administration: The higher authority that is responsible for choosing the supervisors and for allowing the group to exist. These people are typically considered legally responsible even if they knew nothing about the event.

Community: The larger group, such as a town, in which the hazing has occurred. The community also has a responsibility to demand appropriate controls from the administration.

Where: The Setting

WHERE DOES HAZING HAPPEN?

Hazing may occur anywhere. Often it is in locker rooms, on sports fields, on a school bus, or in any area that is large enough to accommodate the group. Frequently the location is part of the tradition, and it re-occurs at the same place. Hazing may occur on or off campus. Usually the participants perceive a lack of adult supervision. They do not believe that outsiders or authorities will intervene to stop the activities.

When: The Timing

Hazing occurs throughout the year. Each season begins another sport, and with it the traditional rites of passage which may include hazing. This is true for both men's and women's teams. Often the beginning of the school year, late August and early September, mark hazings that occur against freshmen in high school and college. Fraternities and sororities begin to recruit new members in the fall, around August/September and in the winter, around January/February. Hazings associated with pledge activities usually follow "rush week" and culminate 4-12 weeks later, in "hell week." This is the most dangerous time, since the hazing activities are continuous and intense. Hazing in the military and on the job occurs at any time throughout the year, with special events (i.e. crossing the equator in the Navy) occurring at times that are traditional to the specific group.

Why:

Hazing is a tradition that has been accepted without question for centuries. Many people believe that it is a necessary rite of passage that creates and bonds within the group. Although this is not true, the misconception lives on. Often intelligent, moral people haze others, because they assume that they will not "get caught."

This is solidified by the "code of silence" which often exists in groups that haze. Sometimes, individuals are expressing their own sadistic feelings and rationalize it by saying "I have the right and duty to do onto you what was done to me."

There are many complex psychological reasons that are found in groups that haze. To further understand the dynamics, please continue reading about "The Perfect Storm Theory."

The Perfect Storm Theory

Meteorologists refer to a perfect storm when particular conditions combine into a rare and deadly storm. Very specific elements must merge in order to create the extreme chaos of a perfect storm. This concept applies to The Perfect Storm Theory of Hazardous Hazing.

The psychology of hazing involves several elements, which collide within a specific framework and cause "the perfect storm" increasing the likelihood of hazardous hazing events.

High School Hazing

1. 1.5 million high school students are hazed each year.¹
2. 91% of all H.S. students belong to at least one group, and half of them, 48% report being subjected to hazing activities.¹
3. 43% were subjected to humiliating activities and 30% performed potentially illegal acts as part of their initiation.¹
4. Both male and female students report high levels of hazing.¹
5. Every kind of high school group was involved in hazing including 24% of the students involved in church groups.¹
6. 10% of all college students admit to being hazed in high school.²
7. 79% of the NCAA Athletes report being hazed initially in high school.¹
8. 25% were first hazed before the age of 13.¹
9. 92% of the high school students will not report a hazing, and of these respondents, 59% know of hazing activities and 21% admit to being involved in hazing.¹
10. 48% of the students acknowledge participating in activities which are defined as hazing, 29% did potentially illegal things to join a group, however only 14% admit to being hazed. This underscored the "disconnect" between how adults define hazing vs. how students define it.¹

College Hazing

11. More than 250,000 students experienced some sort of hazing to join a college athletic team.¹
12. 5% of all college students admit to being hazed.²
13. 40% admit to knowing about hazing activities.²
14. 40% report that a coach or club advisor was aware of the hazing.²
15. 22% report that the coach or advisor was involved in the hazing.²
16. 50% of the female NCAA Division I athletes reported being hazed.³
17. More than 20% of female NCAA athletes were subjected to alcohol-related hazing; however even a higher percentage admitted to "mental hazing" which ranged from singing to being kidnapped.³
18. 10% of the female NCAA athletes were physically hazed including being branded, tattooed, beaten thrown in water of having their head forcibly shaved.³
19. 6-9% of the female NCAA athletes were subjected to sexually related hazing including harassment, actual assault or being expected to simulate sex activities.³

Hazing Trends

20. 60% agree that it is important to tolerate psychological stress and 32% believe it is important to tolerate physical pain.⁴
21. 67% agree that a significant part of initiation is humiliation.⁴
22. 46% believe that the most important thing is to keep the code of silence.⁴
23. 29% of Greek leaders are concerned with the overuse of alcohol during pledge activities.⁴
24. 36% say they would not report a hazing primarily because "there's no one to tell" and 27% feel that "adults won't handle it right."¹

ANABOLIC-ANDROGENIC STEROIDS: Mechanism of Action and Effects on Performance

Thomas D. Fahey
Exercise Physiology Laboratory
California State University, Chico
Chico CA 95929 USA

Anabolic steroids are drugs that resemble androgenic hormones (sometimes called male hormones) such as testosterone (Figure 1). Athletes consume them in the hope of gaining weight, strength, power, speed, endurance, and aggressiveness. They are widely used by athletes involved in such sports as track and field (mostly the throwing events), weight lifting, and American football. However, in spite of their tremendous popularity, their effectiveness is controversial. The research literature is divided on whether anabolic steroids enhance physical performance. Yet, almost all athletes who consume these substances acclaim their beneficial effects. Many athletes feel that they would not have been as successful without them.

There are several possible reasons for the large differences between experimental findings and empirical observations. An incredible mystique has arisen around these substances, providing fertile ground for the placebo effect. The use of anabolic steroids in the "real world" is considerably different from that in rigidly controlled, double-blind experiments (in a double blind study, neither the subject nor experimenter knows who is taking the drug). Most studies have not used the same drug dosage used by athletes. Institutional safeguards prohibit administration of high dosages of possibly dangerous substances to human subjects. Subjects in research experiments seldom resemble accomplished weight-trained athletes. Under these conditions, we must assess the results of sound research studies, as well as clinical and empirical field observations, in order to obtain a realistic profile of the use, effects on performance, and side effects of these substances.

How Anabolic Steroids Work

Male hormones, principally testosterone, are partially responsible for the tremendous developmental changes that occur during puberty and adolescence. Male hormones have androgenic and anabolic effects. Androgenic effects are changes in primary and secondary sexual characteristics. These include enlargement of the penis and testes, voice changes, hair growth on the face, axilla, and genital areas, and increased aggressiveness. The anabolic effects of androgens include accelerated growth of muscle, bone, and red blood cells, and enhanced neural conduction.

Anabolic steroids have been manufactured to enhance the anabolic properties (tissue building) of the androgens and minimize the androgenic (sex-linked) properties. However, no steroid has eliminated the androgenic effects because the so-called androgenic effects are really anabolic effects in sex-linked tissues. The effects of male hormones on accessory sex glands, genital hair growth, and oiliness of the skin are anabolic processes in those tissues. The steroids with the most potent anabolic effect are also those with the greatest androgenic effect.

Steroid Receptors

Steroid hormones work by stimulation of receptor molecules in muscle cells, which activate specific genes to produce proteins (see Figure 1). They also affect the activation rate of enzyme systems involved in protein metabolism, thus enhancing protein synthesis and inhibiting protein degradation (called an anti-catabolic effect).

Heavy resistance training seems to be necessary for anabolic steroids to exert any beneficial effect on physical performance. Most research studies that have demonstrated improved performance with anabolic steroids used experienced weight lifters who were capable of training with heavier weights and producing relatively greater muscle tension during exercise than novice subjects. The effectiveness of anabolic steroids is dependent upon unbound receptor sites in muscle. Intense strength training may increase the number of unbound receptor sites. This would increase the effectiveness of anabolic steroids.

Anti-Catabolic Effects Of Anabolic Steroids

Many athletes have said that anabolic steroids help them train harder and recover faster. They also said that they had difficulty making progress (or even holding onto the gains) when they were off the drugs. Anabolic steroids may have an anti-catabolic effect. This means that the drugs may prevent muscle catabolism that often accompanies intense exercise training. Presently, this hypothesis has not been fully proven.

Anabolic steroids may block the effects of hormones such as cortisol involved in tissue breakdown during and after exercise. Anabolic steroids may prevent tissue from breaking down following of an intense work-out. This would speed recovery. Cortisol and related hormones, secreted by the adrenal cortex, also has receptor sites within skeletal muscle cells. Cortisol causes protein breakdown and is secreted during exercise to enhance the use of proteins for fuel and to suppress inflammation that accompanies tissue injury.

Anabolic steroids may block the binding of cortisol to its receptor sites, which would prevent muscle breakdown and enhances recovery. While this is beneficial while the athlete is taking the drug, the effect backfires when he stops taking it. Hormonal adaptations occur in response to the abnormal amount of male hormone present in the athlete's body. Cortisol receptor sites and cortisol secretion from the adrenal cortex increase.

Anabolic steroid use decreases testosterone secretion. People who stop taking steroids are also hampered with less male hormone than usual during the "off" periods. The catabolic effects of cortisol are enhanced when the athlete stops taking the drugs and strength and muscle size are lost at a rapid rate.

The rebound effect of cortisol and its receptors presents people who use anabolic steroids with several serious problems: (1) psychological addiction is more probable because they become dependent on the drugs. This is because they tend to lose strength and size rapidly when off steroids. To stave off deconditioning, athletes may want to take the drugs for long periods of time to prevent falling behind. (2) Long-term administration increases the chance of serious side-effects. (3) Cortisol suppresses the immune system. This makes steroid users more prone to diseases, such as cold and flu, during the period immediately following steroid administration.

Psychological Effects

Some researchers have speculated that the real effect of anabolic steroids is the creation of a "psychosomatic state" characterized by sensations of well being, euphoria, increased aggressiveness and tolerance to stress, allowing the athlete to train harder. Such a psychosomatic state would be more beneficial to experienced weight lifters who have developed the motor skills to exert maximal force during strength training. Diets high in protein and calories may also be important in maximizing the effectiveness of anabolic steroids.

Anabolic Steroids and Performance

The effects of anabolic steroids on physical performance are unclear. Well controlled, double blind studies have rendered conflicting results. In studies showing beneficial effects, body weight increased by an average of about four pounds, lean body weight by about six pounds (fat loss accounts for the discrepancy between gains in lean mass and body weight), bench press increased by about 15 pounds, and squats by about 30 pounds (these values represent the average gains for all studies showing a beneficial effect). Almost all studies have failed to demonstrate a beneficial effect on maximal oxygen consumption or endurance capacity. Anabolic steroid studies have typically lasted six to eight weeks and have usually used relatively untrained subjects.

Most changes in strength during the early part of training are neural: increased strength is mainly due to an improved ability to recruit motor units. Anabolic steroids affect processes associated with protein synthesis in muscle. Studies lasting six weeks (typical study length) would largely reflect neural changes and could easily miss the cellular effects of the drugs.

The gains made by athletes in uncontrolled observations have been much more impressive. Weight gains of thirty or forty pounds, coupled with thirty percent increases in strength, are not unusual. Such case studies lack credibility because of the absence of scientific controls. However, it would be foolish to completely disregard such observations because the "subjects" have been highly trained and motivated athletes.Please see the articles on pharmacology of sport and sports medicine in the countries of the former Soviet Union for more information on anabolic steroids.

References

American Medical Association, Council on Scientific Affairs. Medical and non-medical uses of anabolic-androgenic steroids. J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 264: 2923-2927, 1990.

Bahrke, M.S., C.E. Yesalosk, and J.E. Wright. Psychological and behavioural effects of endogenous testosterone levels and anabolic-androgenic steroids among males: a review. Sports Med. 10: 303-337, 1990.

Buckley, W.E., C.E. Yasalis, K.E. Friedl, W.A. Anderson, A.L. Streit, and J.E. Wright. Estimated prevalance of anabolic steroid use among male high school seniors. J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 260: 3441-3445, 1988.

Rogozkin, V. Metabolism of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids. Leningrad: Nauka, 1988.

United States Olympic Committee. USOC Drug Education Handbook. Colorado Springs: USOC, 1989.