“Afghanistan’s Turbulent History”

The text of this article has been excerpted from a BBC news article from 2004. The history of Afghanistan stretches back for centuries. This reading, however, focuses on the most recent history of the nation, covering the end of Soviet occupation (which lasted from 1979-1989) to the rise and fall of the Taliban. This basic background can help you to better understand the historical and political context of issues raised by Three Cups of Tea. Key terms and concepts have been bolded to help you pull out the main points of the article. The story Three Cups of Tea begins in the 1990s and follows Mortenson’s work in the region up through post-9/11.

Million killed The Soviet occupation, which lasted until the final withdrawal of the Red Army in 1989, was a disaster for Afghanistan.

About a million Afghans lost their lives as the Red Army tried to impose control for its puppet Afghan government. Millions more fled abroad as refugees.

Groups of Afghan Islamic fighters - or mujahideen - fought endlessly to try to force a Soviet retreat, with much covert support from the United States.

After nearly 10 years, the Soviet Union eventually withdrew, leaving in power President Najibullah, who had replaced Karmal as leader.

He hung on for three years after the Red Army's departure, but fell in 1992 as the United Nations was trying to arrange a peaceful transfer of power.

The mujahideen swept victoriously into Kabul. After a short interim measure, Professor Burhanuddin Rabbani became president of the new Islamic Republic.

Infighting But their victory was soon soured by infighting, as the mujahideen factions failed to agree on how to share their new power.

During the Soviet occupation it was predominantly rural areas that suffered military onslaught as the Red Army tried to flush out the mujahideen.

Afghanistan's war-torn past still haunts its future

But when the mujahideen took over, it was the turn of urban areas to suffer from the conflict.

This was especially true of the capital, Kabul, about half of which was literally flattened. Tens of thousands of civilians lost their lives, and the country slid more and more into a state of anarchy.

It was towards the end of 1994 that the Taliban emerged in the southern city of Kandahar, heart of Afghanistan's Pashtun homeland.

Their initial appeal - and success - was based on a call for the removal of the mujahideen groups.

Taliban Years At first they succeeded in gaining control of Pashtun areas with little fighting. Mujahideen commanders defected to their ranks.

But as their control spread to other, especially non-Pashtun, areas, the fighting intensified.

The Taliban went on to control about 90% of the country.

The Talibanwere toppled after the 9/11 attacks on the US

It was in 1996, as they captured Kabul, that much of the outside world first reacted in dismay to the Taliban's extreme Islamic policies, especially towards the place of women in society.

As Taliban control spread, the Western world intensified pressure on the Taliban to ban the growth of opium poppies, Afghanistan being the source of most opiates reaching Europe.

The United States, in particular, also began their pressure on the Taliban to give up the militant Saudi, Osama Bin Laden, whom the Taliban described as their "guest" in Afghanistan.

Washington blamed Bin Laden for masterminding the suicide attacks on the World Trade Centre in New York and the Pentagon in Washington on 11 September 2001.

The following month the US and its allies began air attacks on Afghanistan which allowed the Taliban's Afghan opponents to sweep them from power. Kabul was retaken in November and by early December the Taliban had given up their stronghold of Kandahar.

Road to elections On 5 December 2001 Afghan groups agreed a deal in Bonn for an interim government, at the head of which Pashtun royalist Hamid Karzai was then sworn in.

The Bonn conference, held under UN auspices, forged a political blueprint leading to elections scheduled for summer 2004.

In June 2002 a loya jirga, or grand council, elected Mr Karzai as interim head of state. A second loya jirga in January 2004 adopted a new constitution.

Since coming to power the US-backed Mr Karzai has survived at least one assassination attempt, in 2002. Last month a rocket was fired at his helicopter. A number of his ministers and other senior figures have been less fortunate.

Mr Karzai has been able to exert little control beyond the capital.

Turf wars between local commanders have been a feature of the post-Taliban period.

And the Taliban themselves have re-emerged as a fighting force, worsening the security situation in the east and south-east.

Hundreds have died in clashes over the last year, and violence and threats by the Taliban and other militants opposed to elections contributed to landmark elections in 2004 being delayed until October.

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Excerpted from: “Afghanistan’s Turbulent History.” BBC News. 8 October 2004.